Geopolitical Transformations in the 21st Century: An Evolutionary Perspective

Abstract

Geopolitics has been reshaped in the 21st century, taking an evolutionary and interdisciplinary approach to explain the changing nature of global power. It revisits classical geopolitical ideas developed by scholars such as Halford Mackinder and Alfred Thayer Mahan, showing how these early theories continue to inform international relations while being adapted to present-day realities. At the same time, the study incorporates contemporary perspectives, including critical geopolitics, geo-economics, and environmental geopolitics, to capture the complexity of modern global interactions. It examines the gradual shift from a unipolar world order to a more multipolar one, focusing on the strategic roles of major actors such as the United States, China, Russia, and the European Union, as well as the rising importance of emerging states and non-state actors. The discussion extends to key regions-including the Asia-Pacific, the Middle East, Europe, Africa, and Latin America-where regional dynamics play a decisive role in shaping global stability. Contemporary challenges such as globalization, rapid technological change, cybersecurity risks, climate change, resource scarcity, and migration are analysed as forces that can both intensify conflict and encourage cooperation. By examining real-world cases like the Russia–Ukraine conflict and tensions in the South China Sea, the article illustrates how geopolitical theories operate in practice. It also assesses the role of international organizations in global governance and offers reflections on future geopolitical trends shaped by new technologies, evolving alliances, and deepening global interdependence.